Gospel of Luke

 

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The Gospel According to Luke (GreekΤὸ κατὰ Λουκᾶν εὐαγγέλιονto kata Loukan euangelion), commonly shortened to the Gospel of Luke or simply Luke, is the third and longest of the four Gospels. This synoptic gospel is an account of the life and ministry of Jesus of Nazareth. It details his story from the events of his birth to his Ascension.

According to the preface,[1] the purpose of Luke is to write an historical account,[2] while bringing out the theological significance of the history.[3] Nevertheless, ancient authors emphasized plausibility rather than truth and mixed intentional fiction in with their biography; the claim that the evangelist wrote with historical intentions does not guarantee the preservation of historical facts.[4]

The writer divides history into three stages: The first ends with John the Baptist, the second consists of Jesus' earthly ministry, and the third is the life of the church after Jesus's resurrection.[5] The author attests that Jesus Christ is theSon of God. This is consistent with all the authors of the New Testament writings. Here, Jesus's compassion extends to all mankind. The Gospel of Luke is written as a historical narrative. Certain popular stories, such as the Prodigal Sonand the Good Samaritan, are found only in this gospel. This account also has a special emphasis on prayer, the activity of the Holy Spirit, women, and joyfulness.[6] Jesus is presented as the Son of God, but attention is especially paid to the humanity of Jesus, featuring his compassion for the weak, the suffering, and the outcast.

The author is traditionally identified as Luke the Evangelist.[7] Modern scholarship generally rejects the view that Luke was the original author,[8] with the most that could be said being that Lukan authorship is "not impossible".[9] While the traditional view that Luke authored the gospel is still often put forward, a number of possible contradictions between Acts and Paul's letters lead many scholars to dispute this account,[10][11] and for some the author remains unknown.[5]Biblical Scholars are in wide agreement that the author of the Gospel of Luke also wrote the Acts of the Apostles.[12]Many believe that these two books originally constituted a two-volume work,[13][14][15] which scholars refer to as Luke-Acts.[16]

Most modern critical scholarship concludes that Luke used the Gospel of Mark for his chronology and a hypothetical sayings source Q document for many of Jesus's teachings. Luke may also have drawn from independent written records.[17] Traditional Christian scholarship has dated the composition of the gospel to the early 60s,[18][19] while other critics date it to the later decades of the 1st century.[20][21]

 

 

 

Title[edit]

Stained glass depiction of St. Luke at St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church in Charleston, South Carolina.

Early on, the gospel was given the title Gospel According to Luke (Greekκατὰ Λουκᾶν εὐαγγέλιονkata Loukan euangelion, or τὸ εὐαγγέλιον κατὰ Λουκᾶνto euangelion kata Loukan). It is commonly called the Gospel of Luke or simply Luke. "Gospel" means "good news."

Composition[edit]

Most scholars date Luke c.80-100.[22] The author of the Gospel of Luke acknowledges familiarity with earlier gospels (1:1). Althoughsemitisms exist throughout the Gospel of Luke, it was composed in Koine Greek.[23] Like Mark (but unlike Matthew), the intended audience is the Greek-speaking populations of the region; it assures readers that Christianity is an international religion, not an exclusively Jewish sect.[7]

Synoptic Gospels[edit]

Almost all of Mark's content is found in Matthew, and much of Mark is similarly found in Luke. Additionally, Matthew and Luke have a large amount of material in common that is not found in Mark.

The Gospels of Luke, Matthew and Mark (known as the Synoptic Gospels) include many of the same stories, often in the same sequence, and sometimes exactly the same wording. One hypothesis for this similarity is the two-source hypothesis. It hypothesizes that Matthew and Luke each borrowed from bothMark and a hypothetical sayings collection, called Q. For some 20th-century scholars, the Q collection accounts for what the gospels of Luke and Matthew share but are not found in Mark. Most scholars are reasonably sure that Q existed and that it can be reconstructed.[24]

In The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins (1924), Burnett Hillman Streeter argued that another source, referred to as L and also hypothetical,[25] lies behind the material in Luke that has no parallel in Mark or Matthew.[26] (See the Four Document Hypothesis)

Sources[edit]

The traditional view is that Luke, who was not an eye-witness of Jesus' ministry, wrote his gospel after gathering the best sources of information within his reach (Luke 1:1–4).[27] Some critical scholarship suggests the two-source hypothesisas probable, which argues that the author used the Gospel of Mark and the hypothetical Q document in addition to unique material, as sources for the gospel.

The Gospel of Mark[edit]

Most modern scholars agree that Luke used the Gospel of Mark as one of his sources.[28] The understanding that Mark was the first of the synoptic gospels and that it served as a source for Matthew and Luke is foundational to modern critical scholarship.[17]

Mark's gospel is quite short, and written in Koine Greek (that is, common Greek). It provides a general chronology from Jesus' baptism to the empty tomb. Luke, however, sometimes presented events in a different order to more clearly support his emphases. For example, Mark has Jesus recruit his first disciples before he has performed any miracles, and Luke moves the recruitment scene to a point after Jesus' first miracles.[28]

 

The Q Sayings Hypothesis[edit]

The Gospels of Matthew and Luke were written independently, each using Mark and a second document called "Q" as a source. Qis defined as the "common" material found in Matthew and Luke but not in Mark

A majority of scholars believe that Luke used Q as his second source. Q (for "Quelle," German for "source") is a hypothetical collection of Jesus' sayings. In the "two-source hypothesis," Q explains where the authors of Matthew and Luke got the material that they have in common with each other but that is not found in Mark, such as the Lord's prayer. The existence of a highly treasured dominical sayings document in circulation going totally unmentioned by the Fathers of the Early Church, remains one of the great conundrums of Modern Biblical Scholarship.[29][30][31]

L source[edit]

Material unique to Luke is said to derive from the L source, which is thought to derive from the oral tradition.[17]

Luke apparently draws formal set pieces from the "teachings" of Christianity and incorporates into the gospel. The Magnificat, in which Mary praises God, is one such element.[28]

The birth narratives in both Luke and Matthew seem to be the latest component of the Gospels.[32] Luke may have originally begun with verses 3:1–7, a second prologue.[32]

Comparisons have been made between the annunciation narrative in Luke's Gospel with the Dead Sea scrolls manuscript Q4Q246:

“He will be great, and will be called the Son of the Most High ... The power of the Most High will overshadow you; therefore the child to be born will be called holy, the Son of God” (Luke 1:32, 35).

“[X] shall be great upon the earth. O king, all people shall make peace, and all shall serve him. He shall be called the son of the Great God, and by his name shall he be hailed as the Son of God, and they shall call him Son of the Most High.” (Dead Sea scrolls manuscript Q4Q246)[33]

The similarity in content has been described as such that "it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that Luke is dependent in some way, whether directly or indirectly, on this long lost text from Qumran".[34]

Greek[edit]

The books of the New Testament were written in Greek. Luke's style is the most literary of all these books.[35] Graham Stanton evaluates the opening of the Gospel of Luke as "the most finely composed sentence in the whole of post-Classical Greek literature."

Authorship[edit]

10th century Byzantine illustration ofLuke the Evangelist.

Although the Gospel survives in anonymous form, it is considered that the name was known to the addressee, Theophilus.[36]The author is considered to probably be a Gentile Christian, although some believe him to be a Hellenized Jew.[20][37]Whoever the author was, he was highly educated, well traveled, well connected, and extremely widely read. By the time he composed the Gospel, he must have been a highly practiced and competent author – able to compose in a wide variety of literary forms according to the demands of the moment.[38]

Despite the majority opinion that Luke was a gentile writing to other gentiles, a few authors have challenged this view. Some believe Luke to be a Hellenic Jew. Birger Gerhardsson notes his opinion that “Luke is very much dependent upon Jewish rabbinical tradition.”[39] Adolf Schlatter concluded that the text's character together with other indicators point to the author's provenance from the Jewish church.[40] Luke presupposes a knowledge of the Old Testament and Jewish history (1:7; 4:38; 9:9–10 & 9:28–36).[41] In fact, “Luke perceives himself to be a Jew.”[42] Finally, Rebecca Denova concludes her book with these words: “Luke-Acts, we may conclude on the basis of a narrative-critical reading, was written by a Jew to persuade other Jews that Jesus of Nazareth was the messiah of Scripture and that the words of the prophets concerning ‘restoration’ have been ‘fulfilled.’”[43] Finally it should be noted that Strelan in 2008 not only concluded that Theophilus was Jewish but also that Luke was a priest.[44]

The Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles were both written by the same author.[45] The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book. Both prefaces were addressed to Theophilus, and the preface of Acts explicitly references "my former book" about the life of Jesus. Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author.[46] Both books also contain common interests.[47] Linguistic and theological agreements and cross-references between the books indicate that they are from the same author.[48] Those biblical scholars who consider the two books a single, two-volume work often refer to both together as Luke-Acts.[49]

The "we" passages in Acts, where the first person plural is used, point to the author being a companion of Paul.[50] Tradition holds that the text was written by Luke the companion of Paul (named in Colossians 4:14).

The Church Fathers, witnessed by the Muratorian Canon, Irenaeus (c. 170), Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Tertullian, held that the Gospel of Luke was written by Luke.[51] The oldest manuscript of the gospel P75 (circa 200) carries the attribution “the Gospel according to Luke”.[52][53] however another manuscript P4 from about the same time period[54][55] has no such (surviving) attribution.

Critical view[edit]

According to the majority view, the evidence against Luke's being the author is strong enough that the author is unknown.[56][57][58] The Book of Acts contradicts the letters of Paul on many points, such as Paul's second trip to Jerusalem for an apostolic council.[59][60] Paul placed an emphasis on Jesus' death while the author of Luke instead emphasizes Jesus' suffering, and there are other differences regarding eschatology and the Law.[5] Paul described Luke as “the beloved physician”, leading Hobart to claim in 1882 that the vocabulary used in Luke-Acts suggests its author may have had medical training. However, this assertion was contradicted by an influential study by Cadbury in 1926, and has since been abandoned; instead it is now believed this language reflects merely a common Greek education.[61][62][63][64][65]

Traditional view[edit]

The traditional view on Lukan authorship, however, is held by many scholars,[66] and according to some scholars it is "not impossible" that they are right.[9] Since Luke was not prominent, there is no obvious reason that this gospel and Acts would have been attributed to him if he did not write them.[67] If Luke was only a sometime companion of Paul who admired and acknowledged his work long after his death, that could explain the differences between Acts and Paul's letter.[68] Even though the evangelist as depicted in the New Testament doesn't match the patristic description of Luke, the traditional view is still argued today.[38]

Date[edit]

Traditionally Luke has been regarded as written by Luke the Evangelist some time between the "we" passages in Acts 16 onwards[69] and the imprisonment of Paul in Rome in Acts 28, leading as with some modern scholars to argue for a date c. 60–65.[70] However many critical scholars consider the "we" passages spurious or inserted and place the date c 80–90,[71][72]

[edit]

Most contemporary scholars regard Mark as a source used by Luke (see Markan Priority).[73] If it is true that Mark was written around the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, around 70,[74] they theorize that Luke would not have been written before 70. Those who take this view believe that Luke's prediction of the destruction of the temple could not be a result of Jesus predicting the future but was written with the benefit of hindsight regarding specific details. They believe that the discussion in Luke 21:5–30 is specific enough (more specific than Mark's or Matthew's) that a date after 70 CE seems likely.[75][76] These scholars have suggested dates for Luke from 75 to 100. Support for a later date comes from a number of factors. Differences of chronology, "style", and theology suggest that the author of Luke-Acts was not familiar with Paul's distinctive theology but instead was writing a decade or more after his death, by which point significant harmonization between different traditions within Early Christianity had occurred.[77] Furthermore, Luke-Acts has views on Jesus' divine naturethe end times, and salvation that are similar to those found in Pastoral epistles, which are often seen as pseudonymous and of a later date than the undisputed Pauline Epistles.[78]

Some scholars from the Jesus Seminar argue that the birth narratives of Luke and Matthew are a late development in gospel writing about Jesus.[32] In this view, Luke might have originally started at 3:1,[32] with John the Baptist. However, given that the birth narrative of Luke contains several 'tropes' that would indicate to a Roman audience that Jesus was special (the virgin birth, wise teaching at twelve, c.f. The Life of Flavius Josephus, "Moreover, when I was...of the law."), it would probably have been included in the original manuscript.

The terminus ad quem, or latest possible date, for Luke is bound by the earliest papyri manuscripts that contain portions of Luke (late 2nd/early 3rd century)[79] and the mid to late 2nd-century writings that quote or reference Luke. The work is reflected in the Didache, the Gnostic writings of Basilides and Valentinus, and the apologetics of the Church Father Justin Martyr, and was used by Marcion.[80] Christian scholar Donald Guthrie claims that the Gospel was probably widely known before the end of the 1st century, and was fully recognized by the early part of the second,[81] while Helmut Koester states that aside from Marcion, "there is no certain evidence for its usage," prior to ca. 150.[82] In the middle of the 2nd century, an edited version of the Gospel of Luke was the only gospel accepted by Marcion, a heretic who rejected Christianity's connection to Jewish scripture.[83]

Before AD 70[edit]

A counter argument for a date between AD 37 and AD 61 for the Gospel[84] typically suggests that Luke's address to "Most Excellent Theophilus," may be a reference to the Roman-imposed High Priest of Israel between AD 37 and AD 41, Theophilus ben Ananus.

Christian scholar Donald Guthrie reports that some think Luke collected much of his unique material during the imprisonment of Paul in Caesarea, when Luke attended to him.[85] Paul mentions Luke, in passing, several times as traveling with Paul. Guthrie notes that much of the evidence for dating the Gospel at any point is based upon conjecture.

Audience and authorial intent[edit]

It is thought that like Mark (but unlike Matthew), the intended audience is international. Luke portrays his subject as regarded in a positive light by Roman authorities.[75] For example, the Jews are said to be responsible for Jesus' crucifixion, with Pontius Pilate finding no wrong in him.[75]

The Gospel is addressed to the author's patron, Theophilus, which in Greek simply means friend of God[86] or (be)loved by God or loving God,[87] and may not be a name but a generic term for a Christian. However, as the patron is described as 'Most Excellent Theophilus', this would indicate that the patron is in fact a governor or other highly ranked Roman official, as 'most excellent' is also used in other texts as a title for highly ranked officials.

Content and structure[edit]

Detailed Content of Luke  
1. Formal introduction
To Theophilus (1:1–4)
2. Jesus' birth and boyhood
Zacharias (1:5–25)
Annunciation (1:26–45)
Magnificat (1:46–56)
Nativity of St. John the Baptist (1:57–80)
:Benedictus (1:68–79)
Census of Quirinius (2:1–5)
Nativity of Jesus (2:6–7)
Annunciation to the shepherds (2:8–15)
Adoration of the Shepherds (2:16–20)
Circumcision of Jesus (2:21–40)
:Nunc dimittis (2:29–32)
Finding in the Temple (2:41–52)
3. Jesus' baptism and temptation
Ministry of John the Baptist (3:1–20)
Baptism (3:21–22)
Genealogy (3:23–38)
Temptation (4:1–13)
4.Jesus' ministry in Galilee
Good News (4:14–15)
Rejection in Nazareth (4:16–30)
Capernaum (4:31–44)
Miraculous catch of fish (5:1–11)
Leper and Paralytic (5:12–26)
Calling of Matthew (5:27–32)
On fasting (5:33–35)
New Wine into Old Wineskins (5:36–39)
Lord of the Sabbath (6:1–5)
Man with withered hand (6:6–11)
Commissioning the Twelve Apostles(6:12–16)
Sermon on the Plain (6:17–49)
Centurion's servant (7:1–10)
Young man from Nain (7:11–17)
Messengers from John the Baptist (7:18–35)
Anointing (7:36–50)
Women companions of Jesus (8:1–3)
Parable of the Sower (8:4–8,11–15)
Purpose of parables (8:9–10)
The Lamp under a Bushel (8:16–18; 11:33)
Jesus' true relatives (8:19–21)
Calming the storm (8:22–25)
Demon named Legion (8:26–39)
Daughter of Jairus (8:40–56)
Instructions for the Twelve (9:1–6)
Death of John the Baptist (9:7–9)
Feeding of the 5000 (9:10–17)
Peter's confession (9:18–20)
Jesus predicts his death (9:21–27, 44–45; 18:31–34)
Transfiguration (9:28–36)
Possessed boy (9:37–43)
The Little Children (9:46–48)
Those not against are for (9:49–50)
5. Jesus' teaching on the journey to Jerusalem
On the road to Jerusalem (9:51)
Samaritan rejection (9:52–56)
Foxes have holes (9:57–58)
Let the dead bury the dead (9:59–60)
Don't look back (9:61–62)
Commission of the Seventy (10:1–12,10:16–20)
Cursing Chorazin, Bethsaida, Capernaum(10:13–15)
Praising the Father (10:21–24)
Great Commandment (10:25–28)
Parable of the Good Samaritan (10:29–37)
Visiting Martha and Mary (10:38–42)
Lord's Prayer (11:1–4)
The Friend at Night (11:5–13)
Blind-mute man (11:14–19)
Exorcising by the Finger of God (11:20)
Strong man (11:21–22)
Those not with me are against me (11:23)
Return of the unclean spirit (11:24–26)
Those who hear the word and keep it (11:27–28)
Request for a sign (11:29–32)
Eye and Light (11:34–36)
Woes of the Pharisees (11:37–54)
Veiled and Unveiled (12:1–3)
Whom to fear (12:4–7)
Unforgivable sin (12:8–12)
Disputed inheritance (12:13–15)
The Rich Fool and Birds (12:16–32)
Sell your possessions (12:33–34)
Parable of the Faithful Servant (12:35–48)
Not Peace, but a Sword (12:49–53; 14:25–27)
Knowing the times (12:54–56)
Settle with your accuser (12:57–59)
Tower of Siloam (13:1–5)
The Barren Fig Tree (13:6–9)
Infirm woman (13:10–17)
Parables of Mustard seed and Leaven(13:18–21)
The Narrow Gate (13:22–30)
Lament over Jerusalem (13:31–35)
Man with dropsy (14:1–6)
Parable of the Wedding FeastGreat banquetCounting the cost,
Lost sheepLost coinLost sonUnjust steward (14:7–16:13)
Not one stroke of a letter (16:14–17)
On divorce (16:18)
Lazarus and Dives (16:19–31)
Curse those who set traps (17:1–6)
The Master and Servant (17:7–10)
Cleansing ten lepers (17:11–19)
The Coming Kingdom of God (17:20–37)
Parables of the Unjust judgePharisee and Publican (18:1–14)
The Little Children (18:15–17)
Rich Young Man (18:18–30)
Blind near Jericho (18:35–43)
Zacchaeus (19:1–9)
Son of Man came to save (19:10)
Parable of the Talents (19:11–27)
6. Jesus' Jerusalem conflicts, crucifixion, and resurrection
Entry into Jerusalem (19:28–44)
Temple incident (19:45–48)
Authority questioned (20:1–8)
The Wicked Husbandman (20:9–19)
Render unto Caesar... (20:20–26)
Resurrection of the Dead (20:27–40)
Is the Messiah the son of David? (20:41–44)
Denouncing scribes (20:45–47)
Lesson of the widow's mite (21:1–4)
Olivet discourse (21:5–38)
Plot to kill Jesus (22:1–2)
Bargain of Judas (22:3–6)
Last Supper (22:7–23)
Dispute about Greatness (22:24–30)
Denial of Peter (22:31–34, 55–62)
Sell your cloak and buy a sword (22:35–38)
Agony in the Garden (22:39–46)
Kiss of Judas (22:47–53)
Arrest (22:54)
Guards mock Jesus (22:63–65)
Before the High Priest (22:66–71)
Pilate's court (23:1–7, 13–25)
Jesus at Herod's court (23:8–12)
Simon of Cyrene (23:26)
Crucifixion (23:27–49)
Entombment (23:50–56)
Empty tomb (24:1–12)
Resurrection appearances (24:13–43)
Great Commission (24:44–49)
Ascension of Jesus (24:50–53)

The Gospel of Luke tells the story of Jesus' miraculous birth, ministry of healing and parables, passion, resurrection, and ascension. Christian scholar Donald Guthrie claims, “it is full of superb stories and leaves the reader with a deep impression of the personality and teachings of Jesus."[88]

Literary structural interest in this Gospel has been shown by scholars over the years: consider the more recent contributions of Bailey, Goulder and Talbert, in particular, for their readings of Luke's Central Section. Almost all scholars believe the section begins at 9.51. A strong case, however, can be put for 9.43b. Then the introductory pieces to the opening and closing parts that frame the teaching of the Central Section would exhibit a significant dualism: compare 9.43b–45 and 18.31–35. The Central Section would then be defined as 9.43b–19.48, 'Jesus Journey to Jerusalem and its Temple'. Between the opening part ('His Setting out', 9.43b–10.24) and the closing part ('His Arriving', 18.31–19.48) lies a chiasm of parts 1–5,C,5'–1', 'His Teachings on the Way': 1, 10.25–42 Inheriting eternal life: law and love; 2, 11.1–13 Prayer: right praying, persistence, Holy Spirit is given; 3, 11.14–12.12 The Kingdom of God: what is internal is important; 4, 12.13–48 Earthly and Heavenly riches; the coming of the Son of Man; 5, 12.49–13.9 Divisions, warning and prudence, repentance; C, 13.10–14.24 a Sabbath healing, kingdom and entry (13.10–30), Jesus is to die in Jerusalem, his lament for it (13.31–35), a Sabbath healing, banqueting in the kingdom (14.1–24); 5', 14.25–15.32 Divisions, warning and prudence, repentance; 4', 16.1–31 Earthly and Heavenly riches: the coming judgement; 3', 17.1–37 The kingdom of God is 'within', not coming with signs; 2', 18.1–17 Prayer: persistence, right praying, receiving the kingdom; 1', 18.18–30 Inheriting eternal life: law and love. (All the parts 1–5 and 5'–1' are constructed of three parts in the style of ABB'.) Given this composition, the question is raised as to the composition of the whole gospel. It would seem that the gospel itself is similarly arranged as a chiasm of 1–5,C,5'–1' Sections. It is after all how Luke's genealogy is also arranged! [89]

[90]

Introduction[edit]

Luke is the only gospel with a formal introduction, in which the author explains his methodology and purpose. It states that many others have already "undertaken to set down an orderly account of the events that have been fulfilled among us, just as they were handed on to us by those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses and servants of the word."[91] The author adds that he too wishes to compose an orderly account for Theophilus, so that Theophilus "may know the certainty of the things [he has] been taught".

Birth narratives and genealogy[edit]

Like Matthew, Luke recounts a royal genealogy and a virgin birth for Jesus. Unlike Matthew, who traces Jesus' birth back through the line of David to Abraham in order to appeal to his Jewish audience,[92] in Luke the evangelist traces Jesus' lineage back to Adam, indicating a universal sense of salvation.[92] Luke's birth narrative features the Christmas story,[93]in which Mary and Joseph travel to Bethlehem for a census, the newborn Jesus is laid in a feeding trough (or manger), angels proclaim him the savior for all people, and shepherds come to adore him. Also unique to Luke is John the Baptist's birth story and three canticles (including the Magnificat) as well as the only story from Jesus' boyhood.

Miracles and parables[edit]

Luke emphasizes Jesus' miracles, recounting 20, four of which are unique. Like Matthew, it includes important sayings from the Q source, such as the Beatitudes. Luke's version of the Beatitudes differs from Matthew's, and Luke's seems closer to the source in Q.[94] More than a dozen of Jesus' most memorable parables are unique to Luke, including theGood Samaritan, the Corrupt Steward and the Parable of the Prodigal Son.

Role of women[edit]

More than the other gospels, Luke focuses on women as playing important roles among Jesus' followers, such as Mary MagdaleneMartha, and Mary of Bethany. The Gospel of Luke is the only Gospel which contains the Annunciation of the Birth of Jesus to Mary his mother (1:26–38).

Compared to the other canonical gospels, Luke devotes significantly more attention to women. The Gospel of Luke features more female characters, features a female prophet (2:36), and details the experience of pregnancy (1:41–42).

Prominent discussion is given to the lives of Elizabeth, the mother of John the Baptist and of Mary, the mother of Jesus(ch. 2).

Last supper[edit]

Luke is the only gospel that treats the Last Supper the way Paul does, as the institution of a liturgy to be repeated by his followers.[95] According to Geza Vermes, Paul is to be considered the primary source for this interpretation because he says he received this insight from direct revelation rather than from the other apostles.[95] The verses in question are not found in certain older manuscripts,[96] and Bart Ehrman concludes that they were added in order to support the theme of Jesus' atoning death, a theme found in Mark but that the evangelist excluded from the original Luke.[97]

Trials and crucifixion[edit]

The Road to Emmaus appearance, based on Luke 24:13–32, painted byJoseph von Führich, 1830.

Luke emphasizes that Jesus had committed no crime against Rome, as confirmed by Herod, Pilate, and the thief crucified with Jesus. It is possible that the author of Luke was trying to gain the respect of the Roman authorities for the benefit of the church by stressing Jesus' innocence.[98] In addition, it is also noted that Luke downplays Roman involvement in Jesus' execution and places responsibility more on the Jews.[99][100] In Luke's Passion narrative, Jesus prays that God forgive those who crucify him and his assurance to a crucified thief that they will be together in Paradise.

Resurrection appearances[edit]

Luke's accounts differ from those in Mark and Matthew. Luke tells the story of two disciples on the road to Emmaus, and (as in John) Jesus appears to the Eleven and demonstrates that he is "flesh and bones" Luke 24:39, not a spirit. Some scholars suggest that by writing of the "flesh and bones" properties of the resurrected Jesus, the author was making an apologetic response to docetic or gnostic views about Jesus' body, or to views that the disciples had merely seen his ghost.[citation needed] However, scholar Daniel A. Smith writes that the author was probably concerned with those in Christian circles who may have believed that the resurrection as merely "spiritual" and that it could have occurred without the transformation of the natural body.[101] In comparing Luke's account with other narratives of post-mortem apparitions in the Greco-Roman world, scholar Deborah Thompson Prince notes the similarities between them but concludes that Luke is unique in incorporating properties of all of them.[102]

Jesus' commission (the Great Commission), to the disciples to carry his message to all the nations, affirms Christianity as a universal religion. The Book of Acts, also written by Luke to the same Theophilus, declares about Jesus that "he showed himself alive after his passion by many infallible proofs, being seen of them forty days..." Acts 2:3 The detailed narration of the Road to Emmaus appearance in Luke 24:13–32 is at times considered one of the best sketches of a biblical scene in the Gospel of Luke.[103]

Manuscripts[edit]

The earliest manuscripts of the Gospel of Luke are three extensive papyrus fragments dating from the late 2nd century or early 3rd century. P4 is probably the earliest,[55] dating from the late 2nd century.[104] P75 dates from the late 2nd century/early 3rd century.[105][106] Finally P45 (mid-3rd century) contains an extensive portion of all four Gospels. In addition to these major early papyri there are 6 other papyri (P3P7P42P69P82 and P97) dating from between the 3rd–8th century which also have small portions of Luke's Gospel.[106][107] The early copies, as well as the earliest copies of Acts, date after the Gospel was separated from Acts.

The Codex Sinaiticus and Vaticanus, 4th-century codices of the Greek bible, are the oldest manuscripts that contain the full text of Luke. Codex Bezae is a 5th- or 6th-century Western text-type manuscript that contains Luke in Greek and Latinversions on facing pages. This text-type appears to have descended from an offshoot of the main manuscript tradition, departing from more familiar readings at many points. Verses 22:19–20 are omitted only in Codex Bezae and a handful of Old Latin manuscripts. Nearly all other manuscripts including Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus and Church Fathers contain the "longer" reading of Luke 22:19 and 20. Verse 22:20, which is very similar to 1 Cor 11:25, provides the only gospel support for the doctrine of the New Covenant. Verses 22:43–44 are found in Western text-type. But they are omitted by a diverse number of ancient witnesses and are generally marked as such in modern translations. SeeBruce M. Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament for details.

Disputed verses[edit]

Some argue that early Christian scribes introduced numerous accidental and deliberate alterations into New Testament documents.[108] Textual critics have used principles of textual criticism to tentatively identify which variants are original. Bart D. Ehrman cites two cases where proto-orthodox Christians may have altered the text in order to prevent its being used to support heretical beliefs.[109]

When Jesus is baptized, some early witnesses attest that Luke's gospel had God the Father say to Jesus, "This day I have begotten you." In orthodox texts (and thus in most modern Bibles), this text is replaced by the text from Mark. Ehrman concludes that the original text was changed because it had adoptionist overtones.

When Jesus prays in the garden of Gethsemane, the text refers to his being comforted by an angel and sweating drops like blood (verses 43–44 in Luke 22:40–46). These two verses disrupt the literary structure of the scene (the chiasmus), they are not found in all the early manuscripts, and they are the only place in Luke where Jesus is seen to be in agony. Ehrman concludes that they were inserted in order to counter doceticism, the belief that Jesus, as divine, only seemed to suffer. While probably not original to the text, these verses reflect 1st-century tradition.[108]

See also[edit]

 

 

路加福音[編輯]

 
 
該條目的基督教術語主要使用了新教常見翻譯,如需查詢天主教的對應用詞,請參閱天主教與新教術語對照列表

路加福音》(希臘語Τὸ κατὰ Λουκᾶν εὐαγγέλιον)是《新約聖經正典中,四福音書之一,並與《馬太福音》、《馬可福音》構成對觀福音

這本福音書記述了耶穌一生的生活,詳細記載了他的降生、工作、受難復活等相關事蹟,並以以耶穌升天結束。路加福音是四部福音中對耶穌出生前及童年生活描述最詳細的一部。

 

關於作者[編輯]

《路加福音》的作者路加並非福音書裏所記載事件的目擊證人,也不是十二使徒之一,他甚至可能在耶穌死時還未成為信徒。可是,他在海外傳道地區和使徒保羅有十分密切的交往。[1]所以,可以理解,他的寫作風格顯出他受到保羅的影響。只要把《路加福音》第22章第19節至第20節和《哥林多前書》第11章第23節至第25節關於最後的晚餐的記載相互比較一下,就可以見到這種風格上的聯繫。《馬太福音》給路加的寫作提供了進一步的資料來源。為了「準確地查考一切的事」,他親身訪問平許多目擊耶穌生平事迹的證人,例如仍然在生的使徒,甚至耶穌的母親馬利亞。路加不遺餘力地搜集可靠的細節,以完成這部福音書的著作。

寫作習慣[編輯]

《路加福音》在行文中使用了300多個醫學術語。[2]這一現象在其他作者以希臘文書寫的《聖經》書卷中並不常見。例如,在談到大痲瘋的時候,路加和其他作者在用語上有所不同。在其他福音書的執筆者看來,大痲瘋就是大痲瘋;但在醫生看來,大痲瘋卻有不同的深淺程度。例如,路加提及一個人「滿身長了大痲瘋」;他也説拉撒路「渾身生」。在談及彼得的岳母時,路加使用了「害熱病甚重」的句子,而其他福音書作者則沒有這樣的表達。[3]雖然其他三位福音書執筆者都告訴我們,彼得削掉大祭司僕人的耳朵,但是只有路加才提及耶穌治癒他的事蹟。[4]《路加福音》説:「有一個女人有病靈在身、十八年了,老彎著腰,總不能直起來。」[5]這種口吻像是出自醫生之口。這本福音書還記載一個撒馬利亞人「用油和酒倒在[傷者]的傷處,包裹好了」。可見,除了「親愛的醫生」路加之外,其他人不會這麼仔細地記錄急救的情形。[6]

獲得承認[編輯]

雖然在福音書的敘事沒有提到路加的名字,但是教會的權威卻對於他就是該福音書的執筆者這一點沒有異議。穆拉多利殘篇(約公元170年)認為這本福音書的執筆者是路加。公元2世紀,諸如愛任紐亞歷山太的革利免等神學作家也接納這個見解。

《路加福音》內在的證據也顯示路加是執筆者。保羅在《歌羅西書》第4章第14節把路加稱為「親愛的醫生路加」。《路加福音》顯示著其作者學問淵博,因此人會傾向於認為執筆者是個受過良好教育的人,例如他是個醫生。路加煉句精確恰當,詞彙豐富多采,而其他三位福音書執筆者所用的語詞合起來還不及他一人所用的那麼多。因此,他能夠對有關耶穌生平的許多主題進行詳實的論述。有些人[誰?]甚至認為他那有關浪子回頭的記載是有史以來最好的短篇故事。

路加福音的特點[編輯]

《路加福音》的描寫比其他福音書更加詳盡,而且語言也具有相當的個人特色。下面列出了《路加福音》的一些特點。

  • 總共有百分之59[來源請求]的資料僅見於《路加福音》;
  • 至少有六個耶穌神跡和超過十二個比喻是其他福音書沒有提及的;
  • 其三分之一的篇幅用來敘述,另三分之二的篇幅用來記載談話;
  • 路加福音是四本福音書中篇幅最長的一本;
  • 馬太的寫作對象主要是猶太人;馬可則為了非猶太籍的讀者,特別是羅馬人,寫成他的福音書。路加的福音則是寫給「提阿非羅大人」的,並且通過他間接傳給別的人,包括猶太人和非猶太人在內;[7]
  • 為了使這項記載對於讀者來說更具吸引力,路加把耶穌的家譜追溯到「上帝的兒子亞當」,而不像針對猶太讀者而寫的《馬太福音》一樣,只是把耶穌的家譜追溯到亞伯拉罕即止;
  • 他特別提及了西面的預言,指出耶穌是「除去列國族面紗」(《聖經新世界譯本》)的工具,而且「凡有血氣的, 都要見上帝的救恩!」[8]
  • 路加在他的寫作中,自始至終都顯示了他獨到的敘述能力。《路加福音》鋪排有序,準確精當。其中準確、翔實的材料有力地證明路加的寫作真確可靠。一位法律作家曾評論説[來源請求]:「傳奇、傳説、虛假的證言都刻意把事情説成在某個遙遠的地方、某個不確定的時間發生,由此違反了我們律師所知的良好申辯的第一項規條:『口供必須道出時間地點』。《聖經》的敘述卻向我們道出所説事情最精確的日期和地點。」 為了證實這點,他引證《路加福音》第3章第1節至第2節:「凱撒提庇留在位第十五年,本丟·彼拉多作猶太巡撫,希律加利利分封的王,他兄弟腓力作以土利亞特拉可尼地方分封的王, 呂撒聶亞比利尼分封的王,亞那和該亞法作大祭司。撒迦利亞的兒子約翰在曠野裏,上帝的話臨到他。」這段經文對於事件的時間和地點沒有半點含糊。相反,路加列出了不下七個官員的名字,這能夠幫助後人確定約翰和耶穌開始執行服事職務的時間。
  • 路加也列出了兩項線索,我們根據它們可以確定耶穌出生的時候。他在《路加福音》第2章第1節至第2節説:「當那些日子,凱撒奧古斯都有旨意下來,叫天下人民都報名上冊。這是居里扭作敘利亞巡撫的時候,頭一次行報名上冊的事。」當時約瑟和馬利亞上伯利恆登記,耶穌就是他們在那裏停留時出生的。[9]一位注釋家説:「路加總是力臻完全準確的地步,這乃是路加的歷史感最徹底的試金石之一。」 [10]綜上,現今很多歷史學家認為路加的確「將一切的事準確地從頭查考過」。

精確的記載[編輯]

19世紀初葉,聖經批評家質疑路加所寫的歷史記載的準確性。此外,他們聲稱使徒行傳所載的歷史是在公元第二世紀中葉捏造出來的。英國考古學家威廉·米切爾·拉姆齊爵士便相信此說。但考證過路加所提及的名字和地點後,拉姆齊卻承認說:「我漸漸意識到,這些記載在很多細節上都十分準確真實。」

關於以哥念的爭議[編輯]

拉姆齊寫下以上的話時,批評家對於路加的寫作是否準確仍未取得共識。他們為了一個爭論相持不下。爭論牽涉到幾個關係密切的城市:以哥念路司得特庇。路加的報導暗示,以哥念跟路司得和特庇不同;他把路司得和特庇稱為『呂高尼的城』(cities of Lycaonia)。[11]可是,路司得距離以哥念比離特庇更近。有些古代歷史家把以哥念描述為呂高尼一部分;因此,批評家指責路加沒有這樣行。

後來在1910年,拉姆齊在以哥念的廢墟發現了一個紀念碑,碑文透露該城居民說的是弗呂家語而非呂高尼語。梅里爾·昂格爾博士指出[12]:「從以哥念及鄰近一帶發現的其他許多銘刻證實,基本上說來,該城可稱為弗呂家的城。」不錯,在保羅的日子,以哥念是屬於弗呂家文化的;這與『呂高尼的城』不同,因為那裡的人說的是「呂高尼的話」。[13]

關於希臘語詞「波利塔爾克斯」的爭議[編輯]

聖經批評者也質疑路加用「波利塔爾克斯」一詞來指帖撒羅尼迦的地方官。[14]希臘文學從沒有採用這個語詞。後來,人在這個古城發現了一道拱門,拱門上不但載有若干地方官的名字,還把地方官稱為「波利塔爾克斯」——正好是路加所用的字詞。W.E.瓦恩在《新舊約語詞詮釋辭典》[15]一書中解釋:「路加寫作的準確性因採用這字詞而獲得證實。」

路加記載的航程[編輯]

航海專家曾仔細研究《使徒行傳》第27章所描述的海難細節。據路加說,他與保羅所乘的大船在一個名叫高大的小島附近遇上從東北颳起的大風。水手們都害怕船會被大風吹到非洲北岸沿海的危險沙洲上。[16]於是,他們以熟練的航海技術成功地把船駛離非洲,向西前行。大風仍然刮個不停。最後,船在馬爾他島的海岸附近擱淺了。當時他們的船已航行了870公里左右。據航海專家們估計,一艘大船在強風中航行,要逾13天的時間才能抵達這麼遠的地方。他們的計算與路加的記載一致,因為路加指出船在第14天擱淺。[17]快艇手詹姆斯·史密斯考查過路加的航海記載的一切細節之後作出結論說:「這乃是一項真實的記錄,是根據個人的親身經歷寫成的……除非執筆者親自目擊其事,否則,他若不是個水手,就根本沒有可能寫出這項在一切細節上都正確無誤的航海記載。」

主題特色[編輯]

本書描述耶穌至善,完全,滿有恩慈,榮耀的人性;強調祂是完美的人子,是普世的救主,為世人帶來平安,使榮耀歸給上帝(2:8-14)。全書的特點如下:

  1. 這是一部文筆典雅的文藝作品和優美的史書,作者先仔細查考有關的資料(1:1-4),才依序編排耶穌的生平事蹟(3:1-2)。
  2. 詳細記載了施洗約翰的出生;更用了頗長的篇幅報導主的出生和童年事蹟。
  3. 常提及被社會輕視的人物,如稅吏,罪人,女人和寡婦等等 (18:13)。
  4. 強調福音的普世性 (2章:10,31-32節;3章:6節;10章:33節;24章:47)。
  5. 強調聖靈的工作 (1章:15節;2章:27;3章:16;4章:18;10章:21)。
  6. 書中也注重敬拜的生活,蘊藏四首今日教會的名詩:尊主頌 (1:46-55);撒迦利亞頌 (1:67-79);榮歸主頌(2:14);西面頌(2:28-32)。

主要內容[編輯]

序言[編輯]

《路加福音》第1章第1節至第4節為該福音書的序言部分。路加記載説,他已將一切的事準確地從頭查考過,並且決意按照合乎邏輯的次序把各事寫下來,好使「提阿非羅大人……清楚地明白(這些事)……都是有真憑實據的」。[18]

耶穌的早年生活[編輯]

這部分經文位於《路加福音》第1章第5節至《路加福音》第2章第52節。一位天使向年老的祭司撒迦利亞顯現,帶給他一個喜訊,説他將會有一個兒子,要起名為「約翰」(即施洗約翰)。但在男孩出生之前,撒迦利亞將不能説話。正如天使所應許,撒迦利亞的妻子伊莉莎白雖然「年紀老邁」,卻得以懷孕。差不多六個月之後,天使加百列馬利亞顯現,説她會憑著「至高者的能力」懷孕,生下一個名叫「耶穌」的兒子。馬利亞前往探問伊利莎白,在作了愉快的問候之後,她心花怒放地宣告説:「我心尊主(耶和華)為大;我靈以上帝我的救主為樂。」她談及耶和華的聖名,以及上帝對敬畏他的人所顯的恩典。約翰出生的時候,撒迦利亞恢復了説話能力。他宣告上帝的慈愛,透露約翰會成為預言者,為耶和華預備道路。[19]

後來耶穌在伯利恆出生。有天使在夜間向看守羊群的牧人宣布這個「大喜的信息」。耶穌的父母按律法給他行了割禮,在聖殿里「把他獻與耶和華」。年老的西面和女先知亞拿都發言談論這個孩子。回到拿撒勒之後,「孩子漸漸長大,強健起來,充滿智慧,又有上帝的恩在他身上。」[20]耶穌12歲時,從拿撒勒觸發前往耶路撒冷探訪。他的理解力和回答令當地的教師大感驚訝。

為服事職務作妥準備[編輯]

這部分經文位於《路加福音》第3章第1節至《路加福音》第4章第13節。當時是作為凱撒提庇留在位第15年(公元27年),上帝的宣告臨到撒迦利亞的兒子約翰身上,於是他出去「傳講象徵悔改和赦罪的浸禮」,好使所有人都「看見上帝施行拯救的方法」。[21]當百姓都在約旦河受浸之際,耶穌也受了浸。他禱告的時候,聖靈降在他身上,他的天父從天上對他表示嘉許。這時,耶穌約30歲。(路加附上耶穌的家譜。)耶穌受浸之後,聖靈帶領他在曠野里逗留了40天。在那裡,撒旦對耶穌提出試探,但卻一敗塗地,於是就退去,「直到另一個方便的時候」。[22]

在加利利執行的早期服事職務[編輯]

這部分經文位於《路加福音》第4章第14節至《路加福音》第9章第62節。耶穌在家鄉拿撒勒的會堂里清楚表明自己的使命,讀出《以賽亞書》第61章第1節至第2節宗教預言,並將其應用在自己身上,説:「主的靈在我身上,因為他用膏膏我,叫我傳福音給貧窮的人;差遣我報告被擄的得釋放,瞎眼的得看見,叫那受壓制的得自由,報告上帝悅納人的禧年。」[23]最初人們對耶穌的話頗有好感,但當他繼續説下去,他們的好感就變成憤怒了;他們甚至試圖殺死耶穌。於是,耶穌下到迦百農,在那裡治癒許多人。人們見過他的神跡後尾隨耶穌,希望留住他,但耶穌告訴他們説:「我也必須向別的城宣告上帝王國的好消息,因為我是為此被差來的。」[24]他接著轉至猶太地區,在其中的會堂里傳道。

加利利,耶穌使後來成為十二使徒彼得雅各約翰神奇地捕到大量的魚。在《路加福音》第5章第10節,他告訴西門説:「從今以後,你要得人了。」於是,他們撇下一切,跟從耶穌。在同一章第17節,耶穌繼續禱告、教導人,「主的能力與耶穌同在,使他能醫治病人。」耶穌召請後來成為十二使徒的另一人——利未(馬太,一個受人鄙視的稅吏),去跟從他。利未大排筵席款待耶穌,並有「許多稅吏」一同坐席。[25]結果,這導致了耶穌和法利賽人的第一場衝突,以後更有一系列的衝突發生。法利賽人因此怒不可遏,遂密謀要陷害耶穌。

經過徹夜向上帝禱告之後,耶穌在門徒當中揀選了十二使徒。他繼續為人治病。然後,耶穌説出載於《路加福音》第6章第26節至第49節的傳道演講。這個演講和《馬太福音》第5至7章的「登山寶訓」十分類似,只不過《路加福音》中這一部分篇幅較為簡短。耶穌作了一項對照:「你們貧窮的人有福了!因為上帝的國是你們的。但你們富足的人有禍了!因為你們受過你們的安慰。」[26]他勸勉聽眾對於要愛仇敵、慈悲為懷、樂善好施,並且從心裡所存的善發出善來。

耶穌回到迦百農,一個軍官派人請求他醫治一個病了的奴隸。軍官覺得自己不配到耶穌家裡請他,於是只請求耶穌在他當時身處的地方「説一句話」,他憑藉自己的信,奴隸就會不藥而癒。耶穌深受感動,説:「我告訴你們,這麼大的信心,就是在以色列中,我也沒有遇見過。」[27]接著,耶穌第一次使死者復活。他所復活的是拿因城一個寡婦的獨子,因為耶穌「憐憫她」。[28]當時,關於耶穌的消息傳遍了猶太,施洗約翰就從獄中派人問耶穌説:「那將要來的是你嗎?」耶穌答覆使者説:「你們去,把所看見所聽見的事告訴約翰,就是瞎子看見、瘸子行走,長大麻瘋的潔淨,聾子聽見,死人復活,窮人有福音傳給他們。凡不因我跌倒的,就有福了!」[29]

在十二使徒陪伴之下,耶穌「逐城逐村地周遊各地,傳講和宣告上帝王國的好消息」。在耶穌講完位於《路加福音》第8章第4節至第15節撒種的比喻後,他總結道:「所以,你們要留心怎樣聆聽;因為凡有的,還要加給他;凡沒有的,連他以為自己擁有的也要從他取去。」[30]之後,耶穌繼續施行各種神跡。他也賜給事兒使徒制服鬼靈的權柄和醫治疾病的能力,並且差遣他們出去「傳講上帝的王國和醫病」。耶穌也神奇地餵飽五千人,並且在山上改變形貌。第二天,門徒不能治好一個被鬼靈附身的男孩,耶穌卻把他醫好了。他提醒那些想跟從他的人,説:「狐狸有洞,天空的飛鳥有窩,但人子連安枕的地方也沒有。」人必須手扶著犁不向後看,才適合進入上帝的王國。[31]

在猶太執行服事職務[編輯]

(覆蓋經文路加福音10章1-13章21)。耶穌另外派出70人去收「莊稼」。這些人成功地執行任務而充滿喜樂。耶穌傳道的時候,有一個人想證明自己公義,就問耶穌説:「誰是我的鄰舍呢?」為了回答這個問題,耶穌説了善心的撒馬利亞人的比喻。有一個人被盜賊打得半死,躺在路旁。在路旁經過的祭司利未人都對他視若無睹。一個受人鄙視的撒馬利亞人卻停下來,小心翼翼地料理他的傷口,把他抬到自己的牲口上,送到客店裡,並且花錢請人照顧他。不錯,「憐憫他的」那個人使自己成為別人的鄰舍。[32]

在馬大家裡,耶穌婉轉地責備馬大過於為家務焦慮。他稱讚馬利亞揀選了上好的福分,坐下來聆聽他説話。耶穌把模範禱告傳授給門徒,教他們要恆切禱告,説:「要不住懇求,就必賜給你們;要不住尋找,你們就必尋見。」後來他驅逐鬼靈,並宣布「那些聽見上帝的話語而又遵守的人」是快樂的。吃飯的時候,耶穌在律法的問題上和法利賽人發生衝突。他宣布他們有禍了,因為他們拿走了「知識的鑰匙」。[33]

耶穌再次和群衆一起的時候,有一個人向耶穌提出請求,説:「請你吩咐我的兄長和我分開家業。」耶穌回答時指出難題的核心,説:「你們要謹慎自守,免去一切的貪心,因為人的生命不在乎家道豐富。」然後他設了財主的比方章財主拆了倉房,另蓋更大的,但自己卻在當天晚上死去,留下財富給別人享用。耶穌一針見血地説:「凡為自己積財,在上帝面前卻不富足的,也是這樣。」耶穌敦促門徒要先求上帝的王國,然後告訴他們説:「你們這小群,不要懼怕,因為你們的父樂意把國賜給你們。」耶穌在安息日治好一個病了18年的女人。這導致他和反對者進一步衝突,結果他們都啞口無言。[34]

在比利亞執行的後期服事職務[編輯]

(覆蓋經文路加福音13章22-19章27)。耶穌用生動的比喻將聽衆的注意引到上帝的王國之上。他表明那些追求顯赫虛榮的人反會受到貶抑。人若擺設筵席,就當邀請貧窮的、無力回報的人赴宴;這樣他就會快樂,『到義人復活的時候,他要得著報答。』此後,耶穌説了關於一個人擺設盛大晚宴的比喻。受到邀請的人一個復一個提出推辭的藉口章一個説自己剛買了一塊地,另一個説自己買了一些牛,還有一個則説自己剛娶了妻。家主一怒之下,派人出去「領那貧窮的、殘廢的、瞎眼的、瘸腿的來」。他宣告起初受到邀請的人,沒有一個可以「得嘗」他的晚宴。[35]耶穌又設了關於失羊復得的比喻,説:「我告訴你們,一個罪人悔改,在天上也要這樣為他歡喜,較比為九十九個不用悔改的義人歡喜更大。」[36]另一則比喻提及一個婦人打掃房子,為要找回一個德拉克馬錢幣。這個比喻也表達類似的要點。

然後耶穌提及一個浪子要求父親把屬他的家産分給他。之後他「任意放蕩」,揮霍錢財。最後浪子飢寒交迫,遂醒悟過來,決定回家任憑父親處置。他的父親動了憐憫的心,就「跑去抱著他的頸項,連連與他親嘴」。父親給他一件上好的衣服,為他準備盛筵,「他們就快樂起來。」但他的哥哥卻不肯和他們一起作樂。父親仁慈地糾正他的哥哥,説:「兒啊!你常和我同在,我一切所有的都是你的;只是你這個兄弟是死而復活、失而又得的,所以我們理當歡喜快樂。」[37]

貪愛金錢的法利賽人聽到不義管家的比喻之後,就嘲笑耶穌的教訓,但耶穌告訴他們説:「你們是在人面前自稱為義的,你們的心,上帝卻知道;因為人所尊貴的,是上帝看為可憎惡的。」(路加16章15)藉著財主和拉撒路的比喻,耶穌表明上帝所嘉許和上帝所不悅的人之間有多大的鴻溝隔開。耶穌警告門徒,他們會遇見使人跌倒的事,「但那絆倒人的有禍了」。他談及「人子顯現的日子」會有許多困難。他告訴門徒説:「要回想羅得的妻子。」[38]藉著一個比喻,耶穌提出保證上帝必定會為那些「晝夜呼籲他」的人採取行動。[39]然後,耶穌以另一個比喻責備那些自以為義的人:一個法利賽人在殿里禱告,感謝上帝他自己不像別人一樣。一個稅吏卻遠遠站著,甚至不敢舉目望天,只是禱告説:「上帝啊,開恩可憐我這個罪人!」耶穌怎樣評論這件事呢?他宣告稅吏比法利賽人更公義,因為「凡自高的,必降為卑;自卑的,必升為高」[40]。在耶利哥,耶穌受到稅吏撒該所款待。耶穌説了十個彌拿的比喻。有些人忠信地運用交託給他們的錢財,有些人卻把錢財埋藏起來;兩者所遭遇的結果形成了強烈的對照。

在耶路撒冷內外執行的公開服事職務[編輯]

(覆蓋經文路加福音19章28-23章25)。耶穌騎著駒子進入耶路撒冷。大群門徒夾道向他歡呼致敬,把他稱為「奉主[耶和華]名來的王」。法利賽人要求耶穌責備門徒,耶穌卻答道:「若是他們閉口不説,這些石頭必要呼叫起來。」[41]耶穌説了他那論及耶路撒冷毀滅的著名預言,指出耶路撒冷會被尖鋭的樁子困住,受人圍攻,她和她的兒女要被摔在地上,甚至連一塊石頭也不留在另一塊石頭上。耶穌在殿里教導人民,宣告好消息,技巧地運用比方和論據去回答祭司長、文士、撒都該人的奸狡問題。耶穌有力地描述末期的重大標記,並且再次提及耶路撒冷會被紮營的軍隊所圍困。由於恐懼將要發生的事,人會嚇得發昏。但一有這些事發生,他的跟從者就要『挺身昂首,因為他們得救的日子近了』。他們務要保持警醒,以求能夠成功渡過註定要發生的事情。[42]

在公元33年的尼散月14日,耶穌守了逾越節。之後,他向他的忠信使徒提出「新約」,並且把這約和象徵性的晚餐聯繫起來。耶穌吩咐門徒要舉行這晚餐,為的是紀念他。耶穌又對他們説:「正如我父和我立了約,我也和你們立約,去得一個王國。」[43]就在當晚,耶穌在橄欖山上禱告的時候,「有一位天使從天上顯現,加添他的力量。耶穌極其傷痛,禱告更加懇切,汗珠如大血點滴在地上。」叛徒猶大帶領暴民前來逮捕耶穌時,氣氛變得極為緊張。門徒喊道:「主啊!我們拿刀砍可以不可以?」其中一個門徒實際把大祭司的奴隸的耳朵砍掉,但耶穌責備他們,並把傷者醫好。[44]

耶穌在衆人擠推之下被帶到大祭司家裡受審。由於夜寒的緣故,彼得和群衆一起在火旁取暖。他在三個場合被人指出是耶穌的跟從者,但他三次都加以否認。就在這當兒,啼了。主轉過身來望著彼得,彼得記起耶穌曾怎樣預告這件事,於是出去痛哭。耶穌給拉到猶太公會的大堂之後,接著被帶到彼拉多面前。敵人控告他顛覆國家,禁止人納稅,並「説自己是基督,是王」。彼拉多獲悉耶穌是個加利利人,就把他送到希律那裡。當時希律碰巧在耶路撒冷。希律和他的衛兵戲弄耶穌,然後把他送回瘋狂的暴民面前受審。彼拉多「把耶穌交給他們,任憑他們的意思行」。[45]

耶穌的死亡、復活、升天[編輯]

(覆蓋經文路加福音23章26-24章53)。耶穌在兩個罪犯之間被釘在十字架上。其中一個罪犯嘲弄他,但另一個罪犯卻表現信心,請求耶穌在他的國里降臨的時候記念他。耶穌應許説:「我實在告訴你:今日你要同我在樂園裡了。」[46],)然後,一片異乎尋常的黑暗籠罩大地,聖所的幔子從中央裂開,耶穌大聲喊道:「父啊,我把我的靈託付在你手裏。」他的氣就斷了。耶穌的屍體給取下來,放在一個從石頭鑿出來的墓穴里。在該周的第一天(星期日),有些跟耶穌一起從加利利來到耶路撒冷的婦女到墓穴那裡去,卻找不到耶穌的身體。正如耶穌自己所預告一般,他在第三天已復活過來了![47]

在往以馬忤斯的路上,耶穌向兩個門徒顯現,但沒有表露身分。他講論自己所受的苦,並向他們解釋聖經。他們忽然認出他便是耶穌,但他卻消失了。他們彼此説:「在路上,他和我們説話,給我們講解聖經的時候,我們的心豈不是火熱的嗎?」他們急忙趕回耶路撒冷,把事情告訴其它門徒。就在他們談論這些事的時候,耶穌在他們中間顯現。他們大喜過望,驚詫不已,簡直不敢相信。他便『打開他們的心竅,能從聖經明白』所發生的各事的含意。最後路加描述耶穌升天的情形,以此結束他的福音書。[48]

基督新教觀點[編輯]

通過預言應驗增強信心[編輯]

路加福音幫助人對聖經養成信心,並且強化信心,抵抗衝擊。路加提出許多例子去説明希伯來文聖經已獲得準確的應驗。記載顯示耶穌用以賽亞書的傑出預言去描述自己的使命。看來路加運用這點作為全書的主題。[49]這是耶穌引用先知書的場合之一。他也曾引用律法,藉此擊退魔鬼的三次試探。他又引用過詩篇,問他的敵人説:「人怎麼説基督是大衛的子孫呢?」路加的記載含有其他許多採自希伯來文聖經的引文。[50]

正如撒迦利亞書9:9所説一般,耶穌騎著駒子進入耶路撒冷。當時群衆喜樂地向他歡呼致敬,並把詩篇118:26的經文應用在他身上。[51]在一處地方,路加福音的兩節經文包含了希伯來文聖經預言的六個要點。這些預言是關乎耶穌的屈辱死亡和復活的。[52]最後,耶穌在復活之後有力地向門徒表明整本舊約聖經的重要性。「耶穌對他們説:『這就是我從前與你們同在之時所告訴你們的話説:摩西的律法、先知的書,和詩篇上所記的,凡指著我的話都必須應驗。』於是耶穌開他們的心竅,使他們能明白聖經。」[53]既然路加和基督教希臘文聖經的其他執筆者都曾經準確解釋過希伯來文聖經的應驗,我們若留意這些經文的應驗,便能夠像耶穌基督最初的門徒一樣受到啟迪而養成堅強的信心。

宣揚上帝的王國[編輯]

路加的記載自始至終不斷把讀者的注意引向上帝的王國。這書的起頭報導天使應許馬利亞會生一個孩子,「他要作雅各家的王,直到永遠;他的國也沒有窮盡。」在最後幾章,耶穌提及把使徒們帶進王國的約中。因此,從起頭直到結束,路加都強調王國的希望。[54]他表明耶穌在宣揚王國的工作方面親自帶頭,並且派出12個使徒,後來更差遣70個人去從事這件工作。[55]人若要進入王國,就必須專心致志。耶穌很坦率地強調這點説:「讓死人埋葬他們的死人好了,你卻要去把上帝的王國廣為宣揚。」又説:「手扶著犁,卻望著後面的東西,這樣的人就不適合上帝的王國了。」[56]

強調禱告的重要性[編輯]

路加強調禱告一事。他的福音在這方面十分突出。路加福音提及撒迦利亞在聖殿裏的時候,群衆正在禱告,施浸者約翰的誕生乃是求子的禱告得蒙垂聽的結果,也提及女先知亞拿晝夜禱告。路加福音描述耶穌受浸的時候正在禱告,在揀選12使徒之前徹夜禱告,在改變形貌時也正在禱告。耶穌勸勉門徒要「常常禱告,不可灰心」。他設了一個比方,説一個堅持不懈的寡婦不斷懇求法官,直到法官給她主持公道為止;藉此耶穌向門徒説明恆切禱告的重要。惟獨路加曾提及門徒請求耶穌教他們禱告,以及耶穌在橄欖山上禱告時有天使來強化他;也只有他才記錄了耶穌在最後的禱告中所説的話:「父啊,我把我的靈託付在你手裏。」[57][58]像路加寫他的福音書的日子一樣,對今日一切努力遵行上帝旨意的人來説,禱告乃是不可或缺的力量來源。

體現耶穌的特質[編輯]

憑著敏鋭的觀察力、流暢生動的文筆,路加使耶穌的教訓顯得親切熱誠、生氣勃勃。耶穌對軟弱的人、受壓迫和鄙視的人,表現愛心、仁厚、慈悲、憐憫。這正好與文士和法利賽人那種冷漠、死板、狹隘、虛偽的宗教形成強烈的對照。[59]耶穌不斷鼓勵和幫助那些貧窮的、被擄的、瞎眼的、受壓制的,從而為一切想「跟隨他的腳蹤」的人立下極佳的規範。[60]

 

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