愛薇塔樂學英文

美國100位歷史名人榜(2)：George Washington喬治·華盛頓

George Washington (February 22, 1732 [O.S. February 11, 1731]– December 14, 1799) served as the fir

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George Washington (February 22, 1732 [O.S. February 11, 1731]– December 14, 1799) served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and as the commander of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War from 1775 to 1783. Because of his significant role in the revolution and in the formation of the United States, he is often revered by Americans as the "Father of Our Country".

The Continental Congress appointed Washington commander-in-chief of the American revolutionary forces in 1775. The following year, he forced the British out of Boston, lost New York City, and crossed the Delaware River in New Jersey, defeating the surprised enemy units later that year. Because of his strategy, Revolutionary forces captured the two main British combat armies at Saratoga and Yorktown. Negotiating with Congress, the colonial states, and French allies, he held together a tenuous army and a fragile nation amid the threats of disintegration and failure. Following the end of the war in 1783, King George III asked what Washington would do next and was told of rumors that he would return to his farm; this prompted the king to state, "If he does that, he will be the greatest man in the world." Washington did return to private life and retired to his plantation at Mount Vernon.

He presided over the Philadelphia Convention that drafted the United States Constitution in 1787 because of general dissatisfaction with the Articles of Confederation. Washington became President of the United States in 1789 and established many of the customs and usages of the new government's executive department. He sought to create a nation capable of surviving in a world torn asunder by war between Britain and France. His unilateral Proclamation of Neutrality of 1793 provided a basis for avoiding any involvement in foreign conflicts. He supported plans to build a strong central government by funding the national debt, implementing an effective tax system, and creating a national bank. Washington avoided the temptation of war and a decade of peace with Britain began with the Jay Treaty in 1795; he used his prestige to get it ratified over intense opposition from the Jeffersonians. Although never officially joining the Federalist Party, he supported its programs and was its inspirational leader. Washington's farewell address was a primer on republican virtue and a stern warning against partisanship, sectionalism, and involvement in foreign wars. He was awarded the first Congressional Gold Medal with the Thanks of Congress in 1776.

Washington died in 1799. Henry Lee, delivering the funeral oration, declared Washington "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen". Historical scholars consistently rank him as one of the greatest United States presidents.

Career
Washington embarked upon a career as a planter, which historians defined as those who held 20 or more slaves. In 1748, he was invited to help survey Lord Fairfax's lands west of the Blue Ridge. In 1749, he was appointed to his first public office, surveyor of newly created Culpeper County. Through his half-brother, Lawrence Washington, he became interested in the Ohio Company, which aimed to exploit Western lands. In 1751, George and his half-brother traveled to Barbados, staying at Bush Hill House, hoping for an improvement in Lawrence's tuberculosis. This was the only time George Washington traveled outside what is now the United States.After Lawrence's death in 1752, George inherited part of his estate and took over some of Lawrence's duties as adjutant of the colony.

In late 1752, Virginia's newly arrived Governor, Robert Dinwiddie, divided command of the militia into four regions and George applied for one of the commands, his only qualifications being his zeal and being the younger brother of the former adjutant. Washington was appointed a district adjutant general in the Virginia militia in 1752, which appointed him Major Washington at the age of 20. He was charged with training the militia in the quarter assigned to him. At age 21, in Fredericksburg, Washington became a Master Mason in the organization of Freemasons, a fraternal organization that was a lifelong influence.

In December 1753, Washington was asked by Governor Dinwiddie to carry a British ultimatum to the French Canadians on the Ohio frontier. Washington assessed French military strength and intentions, and delivered the message to the French Canadians at Fort Le Boeuf in present-day Waterford, Pennsylvania. The message, which went unheeded, called for the French Canadians to abandon their development of the Ohio country. The two colonial powers were heading toward worldwide conflict. Washington's report on the affair was widely read on both sides of the Atlantic.

Presidency
The Electoral College elected Washington unanimously in 1789, and again in the 1792 election; he remains the only president to have received 100 percent of the electoral votes. At his inauguration, he insisted on having Barbados Rum served.John Adams was elected vice president. Washington took the oath of office as the first President under the Constitution for the United States of America on April 30, 1789, at Federal Hall in New York City although, at first, he had not wanted the position.

The 1st United States Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year—a large sum in 1789. Washington, already wealthy, declined the salary, since he valued his image as a selfless public servant. At the urging of Congress, however, he ultimately accepted the payment, to avoid setting a precedent whereby the presidency would be perceived as limited only to independently wealthy individuals who could serve without any salary. Washington attended carefully to the pomp and ceremony of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were suitably republican and never emulated European royal courts. To that end, he preferred the title "Mr. President" to the more majestic names suggested.

Washington proved an able administrator. An excellent delegator and judge of talent and character, he held regular cabinet meetings to debate issues before making a final decision. In handling routine tasks, he was "systematic, orderly, energetic, solicitous of the opinion of others but decisive, intent upon general goals and the consistency of particular actions with them."
Washington reluctantly served a second term as president. He refused to run for a third, establishing the customary policy of a maximum of two terms for a president, which later became law by the 22nd Amendment to the Constitution.

Foreign affairs
Statue of Washington in Paris, FranceIn 1793, the revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genêt, called "Citizen Genêt," to America. Genêt issued letters of marque and reprisal to American ships so they could capture British merchant ships. He attempted to turn popular sentiment towards American involvement in the French war against Britain by creating a network of Democratic-Republican Societies in major cities. Washington rejected this interference in domestic affairs, demanded the French government recall Genêt, and denounced his societies.

Hamilton and Washington designed the Jay Treaty to normalize trade relations with Britain, remove them from western forts, and resolve financial debts left over from the Revolution. John Jay negotiated and signed the treaty on November 19, 1794. The Jeffersonians supported France and strongly attacked the treaty. Washington and Hamilton, however, mobilized public opinion and won ratification by the Senate by emphasizing Washington's support. The British agreed to depart their forts around the Great Lakes, the Canadian-U.S. boundary was adjusted, numerous pre-Revolutionary debts were liquidated, and the British opened their West Indies colonies to American trade. Most importantly, the treaty delayed war with Britain and instead brought a decade of prosperous trade with that country. This angered the French and became a central issue in political debates.

Retirement and death
After retiring from the presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. He devoted much time to farming.

On July 4, 1798, Washington was commissioned by President John Adams to be Lieutenant General and Commander-in-chief of the armies raised or to be raised for service in a prospective war with France. He served as the senior officer of the United States Army between July 13, 1798, and December 14, 1799. He participated in the planning for a Provisional Army to meet any emergency that might arise, but did not take the field.

On December 12, 1799, Washington spent several hours inspecting his farms on horseback, in snow and later hail and freezing rain. He sat down to dine that evening without changing his wet clothes. The next morning, he awoke with a bad cold, fever, and a throat infection called quinsy that turned into acute laryngitis and pneumonia. Washington died on the evening of December 14, 1799, at his home aged 67, while attended by Dr. James Craik, one of his closest friends, Dr. Gustavus Richard Brown, Dr. Elisha C. Dick, and Tobias Lear V, Washington's personal secretary. Lear would record the account in his journal, writing that Washington's last words were "'Tis well." Modern doctors believe that Washington died largely because of his treatment, which included calomel and bloodletting, resulting in a combination of shock from the loss of five pints of blood, as well as asphyxia and dehydration.

Throughout the world, men and women were saddened by Washington's death. Napoleon I ordered ten days of mourning throughout France; in the United States, thousands wore mourning clothes for months. To protect their privacy, Martha Washington burned the correspondence between her husband and herself following his death. Only three letters between the couple have survived.

喬治·華盛頓是美國首任總統（1789～1797年），美國獨立戰爭大陸軍總司令。1789年，當選為美國第一任總統，1793年連任，在兩屆任期結束後，他自願放棄權力不再續任，隱退于弗農山莊園。華盛頓被尊稱為美國國父，學者們則將他和亞伯拉罕·林肯並列為美國歷史上最偉大的總統。

生平事蹟
美國獨立戰爭華盛頓在德拉瓦的戰鬥中：1775年—1783年在1774年華盛頓被選為維吉尼亞州的代表前往參加第一屆大陸會議。由於波士頓傾茶事件，英國政府關閉了波士頓港，而且廢除了麻塞諸塞州的立法和司法權利。殖民地在1775年4月於列剋星頓和康科特與英軍開戰後，華盛頓穿著軍服席第二屆大陸會議—他是唯一一個這麼做的代表，表示了他希望帶領維吉尼亞民兵參戰的意願。麻薩諸塞州的代表約翰·亞當斯推薦他擔任所有殖民地的總指揮官，並稱他擁有"擔任軍官的才能...極大的天份和普遍的特質"。因為亞當斯瞭解到，確保南方的殖民地能與北部殖民地合作順利組成大陸軍團的最好方法，便是推薦一個南方殖民地人士擔任總指揮官。華盛頓在1775年6月15日經由大會選舉無異議支持成為了總指揮官，雖然很捨不得離開心愛的維吉尼亞家園，華盛頓接受了指揮官職位，並宣稱"我不認為我能勝任這個指揮官的光榮職位，但我會以最大的誠意接受職位"。華盛頓並宣稱除了必要的開支外，不須付給他任何額外報酬。就這樣，華盛頓於7月3日在麻薩諸塞州的劍橋擔任了全殖民地軍隊的總指揮官。　

華盛頓在1776年進攻波士頓，利用稍早在提康得羅加堡壘所奪取的火炮陣地，得以俯瞰整個波士頓港，最後將英軍逐出了波士頓。英軍指揮官威廉·何奧（William Howe）下令英軍撤回加拿大的哈利法克斯。華盛頓接著率領軍隊前往紐約市，預期英軍將發動攻勢。擁有壓倒性軍力的英軍於8月展開了攻勢，而華盛頓所率領的撤退行動卻相當笨拙，幾乎全軍覆沒。他也在8月22日輸掉了長島戰役（Battle of Long Island），不過得以撤退大多數的軍隊回到大陸。在接下來又輸掉了幾次戰役，使得軍隊倉卒混亂的撤離了新澤西州，此時美國革命的未來岌岌可危。　　

在1776年12月25日的晚上，華盛頓傑出的指揮重整旗鼓。在這場特倫頓戰役（Battle of Trenton）中，他領導美軍跨越德拉瓦河，突襲黑森雇傭軍（Hessian）的兵營。並接著在1777年1月2日的晚上向查理斯·康沃利斯（Charles Cornwallis）率領的英軍發動突襲，這次奇襲振奮了支持獨立的殖民地陣營的士氣。　　

在1777年夏天華盛頓在普林斯頓的戰鬥結束後，英軍發動了三路並進的攻勢，一路由約翰·伯戈因（John Burgoyne）率領從加拿大向南進攻，一路由威廉·何奧率領攻擊當時殖民地的首都費城。而華盛頓撤往南方，卻在9月11日的布蘭迪萬河戰役（Battle of Brandywine）中遭受慘敗。為了擊退英軍而發動的日爾曼敦戰役（Battle of Germantown）則因為濃霧和軍隊的混亂而告失敗。華盛頓和他的軍隊只得撤回環境惡劣的佛吉穀（Valley Forge）艱難的渡過冬天。　　

在1777年至1778年的冬天，是大陸軍（和政治上的革命運動也是）戰況及士氣最惡劣的時刻，大陸軍遭受了極大的戰損和惡劣的生活環境。但華盛頓依然堅定著指揮軍隊，並持續向後方的殖民地大會要求更多補給，使大陸軍能克服寒冷的冬天，逐漸回復士氣。2月時一名曾服役于普魯士軍參謀部的軍官弗裡德里希·馮·施托伊本（Friedrich von Steuben）前來佛吉穀，自願幫忙訓練華盛頓軍隊，以使他們能在戰場上能和英軍相較量。施托伊本在佛吉穀的訓練改進了戰術和作戰紀律，大幅增進了殖民地軍的戰力，成為了殖民地軍得以擺脫烏合之眾狀態的分水嶺。在佛吉穀的訓練告一段落時，華盛頓的軍隊已經煥然一新了。　　

華盛頓接著率領軍於1778年6月28日的蒙茅斯戰役（Battle of Monmouth）中攻擊從費城前往紐約的英軍，與英軍打成平手，但英軍殖民地政府的企圖於是失敗了。由於這場戰役的勝利，加上一年前於薩拉托加戰役（Battle of Saratoga）中擊敗了伯戈因率領的入侵英軍，情勢逐漸好轉，英軍顯然無法攻克整個新國家，因此法國決定正式與美國結盟。　

1780年在1778年後英軍最後一次的試著分離殖民地，這次英軍集中於南方地區。華盛頓的軍隊並沒有直接攻擊他們，而是前往駐紮位於紐約的西點（West Point）軍事基地。在1779年華盛頓命令5分之1的大陸軍展開沙利文遠征（Sullivan Expedition），對那些與英軍結了盟且常攻擊美軍前線堡壘的易洛魁聯盟的6個部落的其中4個發動攻勢。並沒有戰鬥發生，不過至少摧毀了40個易洛魁村莊，使這些印地安人被迫永遠離開美國，遷徙至加拿大。在1781年美軍以及法國陸軍和海軍一同包圍了康沃利斯在約克敦的軍隊，華盛頓迅速前往南方，於10月17日接掌指揮美軍和法軍，繼續圍城戰鬥直到10月17日康沃利斯投降，10月19日，他接過了康沃利斯的投降寶劍。儘管英軍仍在紐約市和其他地點活動直到1783年，這場戰役成了獨立戰爭最後一場主要的戰鬥。　　

接著在1783年，隨著巴黎條約（1783年）的簽署，英國承認了美國的獨立。華盛頓解散了他的軍隊，並在新澤西州的洛基山（Rocky Hill）向追隨了他多年的士兵們發表了精采的告別演說[4]。幾天後，英國人從紐約市撤退，華盛頓和殖民地政府重回城市，他於12月4日在紐約市發表了正式的告別演說。　

應該指出的是，華盛頓的戰術毫無特殊之處，既無開創性、也對軍事歷史毫無影響，而且他常在許多次戰役中都犯下大錯。但他仍被捧為戰爭英雄，因為支持他的人們認為，由於他所主張的革命概念，美軍也在戰爭中存活並持續戰鬥，使得美國得以維持獨立持續至今。華盛頓一直躲開與英軍直接的衝突，避免了美軍決定性的戰敗或投降。他相當瞭解美軍的弱點並且也限制了他們進行過於冒險的行動，並利用他勇敢的人格激勵軍隊，使他們能撐過漫長而艱難的戰爭。　　

華盛頓在戰爭中選擇了正確的戰略，如同古羅馬將軍費比烏斯·馬克沁斯（Fabius Maximus）在第二次布匿戰爭的戰略，持續的拖延敵人將能使英國人如同當年的漢尼拔一樣，"攻到了門外"但卻"不得其門而入"。很快英國人將會瞭解到繼續作戰只是浪費資源，他們只能追擊美軍進行混戰，卻無法徹底捕捉到美軍的主力。華盛頓瞭解到這場戰爭將會經由外交途徑取得勝利，而不是靠著士兵們。